The River of Doubt: Theodore Roosevelt's Darkest Journey

The humans who migrated to the Amazon Basin “virtually disappeared” from the perspective of “the rest of the world” (220). They were insular and isolated. In 1542, the Spanish explorer, Francisco de Orellana, went into the basin and came upon a tribe of what he called “vicious women warriors” (221). They were labeled Amazons, after the female warriors in Greek mythology who allegedly cut off a breast to better shoot a bow and arrow. The Greek word a-mazos, or no breast, gave the word Amazon its name (221).

When rubber was later discovered in the Amazon, Europeans came to the forest in larger numbers and terrorized the Indigenous peoples. Rubber barons worked Indigenous people as enslaved persons and murdered those who did not meet their quotas. However, as Millard explains, the Amazon rainforest protected several Indigenous peoples. White people were not able to travel too far within it. Thus, in 1913, several peoples of the Amazon had not had any contact with the outside world and had never seen a white person.

The people who had shot Rondon’s dog were called Cinta Larga, the Portuguese term for “wide belt.” When they went into battle, they wore wide belts made from the couratari tree. These belts, though uncomfortable and the source of cuts, acted as a form of body armor. Ordinarily, the Cinta Larga did not wear clothing and were skilled hunters and fishers. They marked their trails in a manner that was only visible to themselves. Since they had little facial hair, the white men, with beards, looked animalistic to them.

The Cinta Larga had not yet conceived of boats and would also be intrigued by the canoes. Each Cinta Larga village was autonomous from the larger group and decisions therefore had to be made by consensus. Millard speculates that this custom kept the members of the expedition alive. Some Cinta Larga wanted to remain invisible, while others wanted to attack.

The Cinta Larga partook in cannibalism with strict rules. They only did so in celebration of a wartime victory and they would not eat another member of their group. However, those who were not Cinta Larga could be eaten after a victory. Millard comments that had these people attacked the expedition, Roosevelt, because of his leadership status and girth, would have been most likely targeted for this practice.

With just four canoes and no trees at hand to build boats, 13 of the men had to walk in the sunshine through vegetation so dense that they had to use machetes to cut through it. They searched for food, as hunger and starvation were major threats at this point in the expedition. They found and ate palmito—or the inner core of small palm trees—which was bland with few nutrients but helped the hunger pains.

Their inability to find better fruits was the “product of millions of years of evolutionary pressure” (235). Given the intense competition for nutrients, the Amazon had little food easily accessible. Fruits remained invisible until ripe and even then, were often high in the canopy to target specific dispersers. Unfamiliar with the rainforest, the men of the expedition found themselves frustrated and unable to get sustenance from the plants and trees surrounding them. Given their constant hunger, the men were obsessed with food.

When the group discovered a 70-foot-wide tributary, they were elated. It was a clear sign that the River of Doubt was of importance. Rondon named the tributary Kermit after Roosevelt’s son. That night, the men recovered the two boxes of provisions lost with Kermit’s boat on the rapids, and one of the men, Lyra, caught two fat fish. Given the high spirits, Rondon officially announced that the River of Doubt would be renamed the Roosevelt. While Roosevelt wanted to protest, he did not want to ruin the “rare good cheer” (240).

On March 18, the men were relieved to find a narrow path along the river. However, its presence meant that Indigenous people were nearby: The men came across a fishing village that had been abandoned only hours before their arrival. Rondon, in a gamble, left gifts for the Indigenous people, hoping that it would deter attack and not encourage it.

As the expedition proceeded, the men found the correct type of trees to build more boats. The araputanga was light, resistant to rot, and easy to carve (244). Roosevelt and the Americans were angered when they found out that Rondon had slowed the building of the boats to survey the river properly. Rondon and Roosevelt were increasingly at odds over the speed of the expedition. Concerned about his son’s safety, Roosevelt finally confronted Rondon and told him to get only basic information and leave it to subsequent expeditions to survey the river. Rondon acquiesced but was not happy about it. Food remained a pressing concern, especially after it was discovered that 15 boxes of rations had gone missing. The prime suspect was de Lima.

On March 23, the men had to carry the boats for a long way, as the water was a “foaming torrent” (246). When they spotted Indigenous huts on one side of the river, they moved to the other side. On land, they were tormented by insects. Malaria, which was contracted by 80% to 90% of those working in the Amazon, was the most feared. It resulted in recurring fevers for months or years and could be deadly. The physician in the expedition, Dr. Cajazeira, administered quinine, the only available treatment, to all the members of the expedition. However, he could not give the right amount of dosage given the drug’s toxic side effects. Roosevelt, whose health was declining, commented that the myth of beneficent nature was exploded by the “iron cruelty of life in the tropics” (252).

Kermit, who suffered from malaria, worked as hard as anyone and befriended the Brazilian officer Lyra. His father made himself useful as well. At one time, he washed Cherrie’s clothes. Roosevelt greatly admired all the Brazilians, except for de Lima. Paishon, a veteran of Rondon’s telegraph project, led the Brazilian soldiers and stood out for his excellence. He caught de Lima stealing and punched him.

The expedition faced rapids worse than any previously experienced on the river. With the food situation growing desperate, they advanced less than four miles over four days. They were fortunate to find some food and fish on March 26, but they had consumed half their rations and traveled only about 100 miles by that date. In trying to get the boats through one channel of rapids, they lost two boats. Fearing a loss of two more, all the men, including Roosevelt, ran into the water to help. The group was able to free the boats and secure them with rope. However, Roosevelt slipped in the water and injured his good leg. A wound in the rainforest had the potential to become infected with bacteria or parasites and could be life-threatening.

On March 28, the group encountered rapids that were not passable. It seemed impossible to carry the canoes over land, given the slippery conditions and the massive waterfalls that would destroy the boats over water. Rondon concluded that the group would have to abandon the canoes and walk. This plan would be a death sentence for Roosevelt (264). Strongly believing that one man’s health should not jeopardize the lives of others, Roosevelt was prepared to die. He had brought with him a vial containing a lethal dose of morphine and instructed Cherrie to proceed with Kermit. He would “stop here” (267).