The Origins of the Modern World: A Global and Ecological Narrative from the Fifteenth to the Twenty-first Century

Marks concludes by restating that the state of the present-day world is best understood through a global history. Even the rise of Western hegemony cannot be understood except by looking at regions outside the West as well. With the rise of the US as a superpower after World War II, a historical narrative extolling American “exceptionalism” emerged that in many ways mimicked Eurocentrism. However, given China’s rise as an economic power and the looming threat of climate change, the world appears to be at a “conjuncture.”

By the dawn of the 19th century, India, China, and western Europe were “broadly comparable.” Marks again summarizes the three contingencies that led to the shift toward Western hegemony: Chinese demand for silver in the 1400s, the discovery and conquest of the Americas, and the development of military innovation in Europe as competing states frequently went to war. In the 19th century, Britain benefited from the presence of coal in its land and the demand for cotton textiles for African enslaved people in the Americas. Industrialization had two major impacts: the rise of the West and the rapid industrialization of the Global South to keep up, and humanity’s radically increased environmental impact: “[T]he impact humans have now had has been unplanned and unintended, with unfolding consequences for us and planet Earth that we do not yet fully comprehend” (246). As a result, Marks suggests, people must reevaluate how economies, energy consumption, and other aspects of the modern world operate.

Marks defines several periods of globalization. The first began with Spain’s establishing the colony of Manila on the Philippines, enabling “regular exchange of people, commodities, plants, animals, pathogens, and genetic material around the world” (247). The second occurred in the 19th century through the rise of industrial empires like Britain and Japan and the colonization of Africa and Asia. A third resulted from the establishment of the United Nations, the Cold War, and decolonization. A fourth resulted from the collapse of the Soviet Union and the US globally spreading ideas of privatization, free trade, and capitalism, culminating in China’s dominating the world economy through manufacturing. Marks speculates that these developments could lead to both China and Russia “going their own way” (249) or to China vying with the US for influence over East Asia, if not the entire world. Despite such changes, the Westphalian system of nation-states still prevails, even against recent challenges like the “war on terror.” However, he warns that challenges like climate change require a truly global response.