Rhetoric

Having addressed non-artistic proofs and the three kinds of oratory, Aristotle devotes Book 2 to artistic proofs beginning with character and emotion. He explains the importance of this examination: “[T]he speaker must not merely see to it that his speech [as an argument] shall be convincing and persuasive, but he must [in and by the speech] give the right impression of himself, and get his judge [audience] into the right state of mind” (91). Aristotle divides the character (ethos) of the speaker into three parts: intelligence; character; and good will—he will return to this topic later. The author also broadly divides all emotions into three points which the speaker must bear in mind if he is to excite any emotion in his listener: the listener’s mental state; who is usually the target of their emotion; and what factors usually cause this emotion in the listener.

What follows is an examination of 14(often opposing, but not always) emotions: anger; mildness; friendship; enmity or hatred; fear; confidence; shame; shamelessness; benevolence; pity; indignation; envy; emulation; and contempt. For each, Aristotle provides definitions and examines the circumstances that are often attendant. Some emotions receive more in-depth treatment than others.

Aristotle argues that anger is caused by slights, which come in three forms: contempt; spite; and hubris (a Greek term generally translated as wanton insult, outrage, or insolence). Mildness is the opposite of anger and can hence be thought of in opposite terms. With the knowledge of these emotions and their causes, the speaker can excite or suppress either emotion in his own listeners. This method applies to all the other emotions.

Aristotle defines friends (associated with the emotion of friendship)as those “who have come to regard the same things as good and the same things as evil” (103). The opposite of friendship is enmity or hatred. Fear arises from an awareness of impending danger, and people who sense that they will soon suffer tend to feel afraid. Confidence is the opposite of fear, and it generally appears in those who have much experience or no experience at all. Shame arises from vices or a lack of virtues. Men feel ashamed before anyone whose opinions they value or who could cause them embarrassment. Shamelessness forms its opposite.

Benevolence could be defined as altruistic kindness, and an orator can excite benevolence or its opposite by showing need (or a lack thereof). Audiences feel pity when someone with whom they feel allied suffers, and men are more likely to feel pity if they have experience or understanding of that suffering. The opposite of pity is indignation, which Aristotle sees as outrage targeted “at undeserved prosperity; since whatever comes to a man against his deserts violates the principle of justice” (123). Envy arises when men see another’s good and want it for themselves. Emulation is nearly identical to envy, but with the positive effect that it inspires men to prepare for and work toward the good that they see in others. Contempt, at last, is the opposite of emulation.