Plutarch's Lives, Vol. 1

In antiquity, there were different approaches to writing biography. Many ancient biographies were closer to what we would now think of as “historical fiction,” embellishing the lives of important historical figures with outlandish fables and legends. Ancient biography is thus distinguished from history, though the two disciplines are related: Both biography and history deal in some way with the important figures of the past. For biographers such as Plutarch, however, the main goal of biography is to explore the way the characters and morals of individuals have shaped historical events.

In ancient Rome, the censor was a public official elected every five years to conduct a census, supervise public morality, and manage the state finances. During their time in office, censors would assess the property of the citizenry. They also audited the state’s political and financial systems and could remove senators for misconduct. Since the role of censor was so critical in maintaining political, social, and fiscal order in Rome, the office of the censor would always go to a distinguished public figure known for their honesty and integrity.

The consulship was the highest regular political office in the Roman Republic. There were two consuls in Rome that were elected annually. The consuls were responsible for presiding over the senate, commanding the Roman army, and overseeing the judicial system. Though the consuls were very powerful, the power of each consul was checked by their co-consul as well as the other institutions of the Roman government.

A democracy is a system of power in which important political officials are elected to their posts by the citizens. The term “democracy” comes from the ancient Greek for “rule of the people.” Many early democracies existed in ancient Greece, the most famous being the Athenian democracy, although only free men above a certain age were eligible to vote. In Athens, the magistrates who ran the government, like the archons, were elected by public vote or appointed by lot. The Roman Republic was also a representative democracy, with most public officials being elected by public vote.

The Roman office of dictator was not a regular magistracy. Rather, dictators were appointed on an as-needed basis during times of crisis, especially military emergencies. A dictator was granted unlimited power for up to six months. During these six months, the dictator could make decisions without the usual checks and balances of the Republic. Dictators would also appoint a lieutenant to aid them in their task, known as the “Master of the Horse.”

In ancient Greece and Rome, there were many authors who wrote historical works on the events of the past. The earliest Greek historians whose works have survived are Herodotus and Thucydides, both of whom were writing in the fifth century BCE. Historians differentiated themselves from poets by using reason and research to uncover what really happened in the past without relying too much on myths.

The Mithridatic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Mithridates VI, ruler of the kingdom of Pontus in Asia Minor. The first war broke out in 88 BCE, and the third and final war ended in 63 BCE, with the death of Mithridates. The war was fought for control of Asia Minor and the Greek world, with the Romans taking great pains to halt Mithridates’s expansionist ambitions. Several major Roman generals, including Sylla, Lucullus, and Pompey, fought against Mithridates. Rome was ultimately victorious, turning Asia Minor into one of their imperial provinces.

Myths or fables are usually defined as traditional stories about the past that feature gods or other supernatural entities. In ancient Greece, the myths were generally believed to have at least some truth to them, even if the truth behind the myths needed to be extracted (or “purified,” as Plutarch puts it in his Theseus) by a historicizing process of reason that separated the fabulous elements from the plausible elements.

An oligarchy is a system of government in which power resides in the hands of a small group of people. Ancient Sparta is a notable example of an oligarchy, with the Spartan government largely controlled by a pair of hereditary kings and a council of five officials known as ephors. Oligarchic governments in ancient Greece were often ideologically opposed to democratic governments (such as Athens), contributing to several wars. After the Peloponnesian War, the Spartans even tried to replace Athens’ democratic government with the oligarchy of the “Thirty Tyrants.”

Oracles were sources of divination and prophecy in many ancient civilizations, including Greece and Rome. Oracular sites, such as Delphi in central Greece, were seen as intermediaries between gods and humans. Through oracles, humans believed that they could receive advice, predictions, and guidance from the gods on private questions as well as state affairs.

In ancient Greece and Rome, philosophy had a very broad meaning, and could refer to anything from the hard sciences to political theory or ethics. Following the fifth-century BCE Athenian philosopher Socrates, however, ancient philosophy was predominantly concerned with ethical questions. Many philosophers, including Plutarch, tried to establish what was the best way for people to live their lives. Virtue ethics were thus an important component of ancient philosophy, as was theology and even cosmology.

The Peloponnesian War was a long conflict fought between the Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta and their respective allies during the final third of the fifth century BCE. The conflict originated in power struggles and trade disputes between Athens and Sparta, which had emerged as the two most powerful city-states in Greece following the Second Persian War. The war ended with a crushing Spartan victory and resulted in the end of Athenian dominance in the Aegean Sea.

The Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Persian Empire and the Greek city-states, especially Athens and Sparta. The wars mostly spanned the first half of the fifth century BCE. The Persian Wars began as Persian expansion encountered resistance from the Greek city-states in the west, leading to several clashes between Greek and Persian armies.

The Persians twice attempted to invade Greece, first in 490 BCE and then in 480 BCE, but their force was repelled both times by Greek defenders. These wars played a formative role in the creation of a Greek cultural identity during the Classical Period. Following the Persian invasions of Greece, there were a handful of more minor and ultimately indecisive conflicts between the Greeks and Persians, with Greek armies even invading the Persian Empire on a few occasions.

“Proscription” refers to the public listing and confiscation of property of individuals declared enemies of the state. Proscribed individuals were usually exiled or executed. Proscriptions were carried out in ancient Rome during periods of civil war. The first proscription in Rome was initiated by Sylla after he seized the city from the supporters of his political enemy Marius. Another proscription took place in the 40s BCE, during the time of Octavian and Marcus Antonius.

The Punic Wars were three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BCE. The wars were fought for control of valuable ancient Mediterranean trade routes. At the beginning of the war, Carthage was one of the major powers of the Mediterranean while Rome was a relatively minor local power in Italy. However, Rome conducted the war so skillfully and persistently that they gradually stripped Carthage of their power. In the Second Punic War, the Romans chased the Carthaginian general Hannibal away from Italy, and in the Third Punic War the Romans destroyed Carthage completely.

A republic is a form of government where sovereignty resides in the citizens and is exercised by elected representatives chosen through regular elections. The term “republic” comes from the word the Romans used for their system of government. In Rome, the republic lasted from the end of the sixth century BCE until the rise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty at the end of the first century BCE. The Roman Republic featured a representative government with elected officials; the highest officials were the two consuls, elected annually.

The Spartan Rhetra was a legendary or semi-legendary oracle or decree connected with the lawgiver Lycurgus. The Rhetra served as the foundational legal and constitutional framework of the Spartan state, outlining the division of powers, the role of the dual kingship, and the establishment of the ephorate and senate. The Rhetra was also connected with the military-focused education system of the Spartans.

The Sacred Band was an elite Theban military unit. It was comprised of 150 pairs of male lovers who fought together. The 300 soldiers of the Sacred Band were famous for their bravery and cohesion, and they played a significant role in the rise of Theban power in the early fourth century BCE. Under the command of Pelopidas and Epaminondas, the Sacred Band defeated the Spartans, redeemed Messenia, and won important victories against the tyrant Alexander of Pherae.