Mahabharata

Nonfiction | Scripture | Adult | BCE

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Summary

Background

Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Translator’s Preface-Chapter 5

Chapters 6-13

Chapters 14-21

Chapters 22-29

Chapters 30-37

Key Figures

Themes

Symbols & Motifs

Important Quotes

Essay Topics

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Discussion Questions

Themes

The Importance of Dharma

Dharma, or duty, plays a central role in the epic, guiding characters’ actions not as a static doctrine but as a process and lived experience that is both personal and universal, mundane and cosmic. The story presents dharma as a moving target that requires each character to navigate the uncertain boundaries between personal duty, social expectations, and the larger, sometimes inscrutable workings of fate.

Dharma functions in the epic as both an ethical and social compass. Figures like Bhishma, Yudhishthira, and Draupadi embody this theme as they strive to uphold their duties within challenging and often conflicting circumstances. Bhishma, whose life is defined by a vow to remain celibate and loyal to the throne, is bound by his sense of duty to the Kuru lineage. This commitment leads him to sacrifice personal happiness and align himself with the Kauravas, even when he knows they are in the wrong. Bhishma’s struggle illustrates one of dharma’s essential tensions in the Mahabharata: loyalty to family versus personal conscience. His adherence to duty, while honorable, also reveals how rigid adherence to societal dharma can become a source of suffering, forcing characters to endure consequences that seem unjust. Through Bhishma’s arc, the epic suggests that dharma is both a noble ideal and a burdensome commitment, one that may not align with personal desires or even with justice as understood by others.

Dharma’s social dimension is further explored through Yudhishthira, the Pandava king, who is renowned for his commitment to righteousness and truth. His unwavering dedication to duty, however, leads him into morally ambiguous territory, particularly during the dice game in which he stakes his kingdom, his brothers, and even his wife, Draupadi. Yudhishthira’s actions—while consistent with his role as a king who must honor the laws of hospitality and as a player adhering to the rules of gambling—raise questions about the true nature of duty and responsibility. His adherence to dharma, in this case, causes great suffering for his family, illustrating the difficulty of balancing one’s responsibilities to society with one’s obligations to loved ones. Yudhishthira’s story underscores the idea that dharma is not always clear-cut; it demands personal sacrifices and sometimes conflicts with other values, such as loyalty to family and protection of one’s loved ones.

The Mahabharata also explores the metaphysical aspects of dharma, suggesting that it operates on a plane beyond immediate human comprehension. Figures like Duryodhana, who pursues his claim to the throne with a fierce sense of entitlement, are bound to a predetermined fate that appears to move according to a cosmic, karmic order. Duryodhana’s unyielding ambition and his loyalty to his family, while consistent with his understanding of dharma, ultimately lead to ruin, indicating that dharma may serve a larger, perhaps divine purpose beyond individual outcomes. This cosmic aspect of dharma implies that human actions, while seemingly independent, are part of a larger design that unfolds according to an order involving gods, mythical creatures, humans, or nature and that it is beyond any one being’s control. Duryodhana’s fate, despite his own conviction in his righteousness, points to the ways that dharma serves as a force for maintaining balance in the universe, even if it leads individuals to painful and often tragic ends.

Thus, in this retelling, dharma emerges as a force that shapes human life on multiple levels—personal, social, and cosmic. Characters act according to what they perceive as their dharma, yet their actions reveal the tensions and contradictions inherent in attempting to live a dutiful life. By portraying dharma as a concept that requires constant interpretation and personal sacrifice, the Mahabharata highlights the challenges of living a life governed by duty, suggesting that sometimes one must simply do their best to act with equanimity, with the best intentions possible and without attachment to the outcome. In the worldview of the Mahabharata, each individual plays their part in one grand, mysterious, cosmic drama; life itself, like the Mahabharata, is a story, and individuals must learn how to act in a righteous way within it. The epic suggests that while dharma is essential for maintaining order, it is also a demanding ideal, one that can conflict with personal fulfillment and expose individuals to the harsh consequences of their choices.

The Power of Storytelling

In the Prologue, the Mahabharata itself is positioned as a living, evolving force with the ability to shape individual and collective understanding. Storytelling in the Mahabharata transcends narration; it is capable of providing illumination and dispelling darkness and ignorance. Throughout the epic, stories are presented as vehicles for understanding complex questions of morality, identity, and human purpose. From the invocation in the Prologue to the closing chapters of the epic, the Mahabharata is a tale of family conflict and war, a meditation on human and cosmic existence, and an active agent of change and meaning making.

The Prologue establishes this thematic foundation by framing the Mahabharata as a sacred story, passed down through a chain of storytellers who each contribute their voice and interpretation. Sauti, the narrator of the Prologue, presents the epic as a “lamp of history” that dispels ignorance and reveals sacred knowledge of religion, ethics, and existential questions (6). This framing elevates the story beyond simple history, positioning it as a source of wisdom that gives meaning to events and has been refined and reinterpreted through generations. The invocation and the recounting of how the epic was first composed by Vyasa and transcribed by Ganesha further highlight the reverence with which the Mahabharata is regarded, suggesting that storytelling itself is an act of spiritual and cultural creation. This beginning holds the Mahabharata up as a bridge between the divine and the human, meant to connect listeners with larger philosophical and divine teachings and truths.

As the main story unfolds, the theme of storytelling continues to shape the characters’ experiences and perceptions. Characters often refer to the idea that their lives are part of a larger narrative, one woven by forces beyond their control. For example, Bhishma, Draupadi, and Yudhishthira frequently reflect on their roles and duties within the epic’s cosmic framework, demonstrating an awareness of their actions as elements within a grander story. This self-awareness speaks to the ancient South Asian ideal in which individuals should understand and fulfill their roles within society and the universe. Slavitt’s adaptation brings out this theme, showing that the Mahabharata is as much about the characters’ struggles to find meaning within their roles as it is about the specific events of their lives. Storytelling here functions as a means of understanding one’s place in the world, suggesting that narratives—both personal and collective—can offer insight into the nature of duty, identity, and destiny. Understood in this way, storytelling is pedagogical; it teaches how to live, and the Mahabharata is a story that seeks to teach how to live honorably, or righteously, by navigating the many difficulties that life presents.

The characters’ lives are also shaped by various storytellers within the epic itself, such as Vyasa, Vaisampayana, and Sauti, who each present the story to different audiences in slightly different ways. This structure highlights the adaptability of the Mahabharata, showing that the story is not fixed but continuously reshaped by those who tell it. By focusing on Bhishma’s life and key episodes in the Pandavas’ journey, Slavitt’s adaptation reflects this quality of the Mahabharata as an open, interpretative narrative. Furthermore, storytelling in the Mahabharata functions as a means of conveying cultural values and ethical frameworks. The epic’s numerous episodes—ranging from the dice game that leads to Draupadi’s humiliation to the fateful battles of Kurukshetra—serve as illustrative tales that teach about dharma, or righteous conduct, and the consequences of one’s choices. Through these narratives, the Mahabharata examines themes such as loyalty, honor, ambition, and justice, offering insights into the ethical complexities that individuals face in their lives.

Ultimately, storytelling in the Mahabharata is a transformative force that shapes the moral, social, and spiritual landscape of its characters and audience alike. The epic insists that stories hold the power to connect the human experience with the divine, embedding moral, social, and cosmic lessons within each narrative strand. In this view, storytelling is a path to understanding one’s place in the universe and, if applied with equanimity, compassion, and righteousness, working to create a harmonious existence.

The Pervasiveness of Moral Dilemmas

The multifaceted choices that characters must often make illustrate the complexity of human nature and the challenges that individuals face in upholding ethical principles in an imperfect world. The characters in the Mahabharata frequently encounter situations where their personal desires, societal roles, and duties come into conflict, forcing them to navigate difficult decisions with far-reaching consequences. Through these moral struggles, Slavitt’s adaptation highlights the Mahabharata’s view that ethical ambiguity is a fundamental part of the human experience—as relevant in ancient India as it is now—and one that reflects both the limitations and the potential of human nature.

One of the most significant examples of moral conflict in the Mahabharata is Yudhishthira’s participation in the dice game, an episode that serves as a turning point in the narrative. Yudhishthira, known for his devotion to truth and dharma, finds himself bound by the rules of hospitality to accept the invitation to gamble, even though he is aware of the potential dangers. Driven by a sense of obligation, he stakes his kingdom, brothers, and even his wife, Draupadi, leading to their humiliation and exile. This decision reveals the difficulty of aligning personal virtues with the complex demands of duty. Yudhishthira’s adherence to his roles as king and gambler ultimately conflicts with his responsibilities to protect his family and uphold justice. This conflict highlights the epic’s portrayal of moral dilemmas as inescapable, suggesting that the very nature of human duty often demands difficult, even painful, choices that lack clear resolutions.

Similarly, the character of Bhishma embodies the tension between personal ethics and duty to others, illustrating how moral dilemmas permeate the lives of even the most virtuous individuals. Bhishma, having taken a vow of lifelong celibacy and loyalty to the throne, is bound to serve the Kauravas despite recognizing their faults and misdeeds. His loyalty to his vow forces him into an impossible position, as he must fight against the Pandavas, whom he respects and wishes to protect. Bhishma’s adherence to his vow, while noble, ultimately results in personal suffering and a sense of helplessness as he witnesses and participates in the destruction of his kin. This episode reflects the Mahabharata’s exploration of the limitations of human agency, portraying duty as a force that can both elevate and entrap individuals, pushing them to act in ways that challenge their own sense of right and wrong. The character of Bhishma underscores the Mahabharata’s view that moral dilemmas are inherent to the human condition, as individuals struggle to reconcile their commitments with the ethical ambiguities of life.

Throughout Slavitt’s adaptation, the Mahabharata’s characters are depicted as aware of their moral dilemmas, often reflecting on the consequences of their actions and their limitations as individuals. This self-awareness reinforces the theme of moral conflict as an essential aspect of human nature, illustrating that ethical challenges are not only imposed by external circumstances but also an expression of inner conflicts and values. Moral dilemmas are presented as unavoidable, shaped by the interplay between individual agency, social constructs, and cosmic forces.

The epic ultimately teaches that while ethical conflicts are inherent to the human experience, individuals can approach duty with equanimity, devotion, and wisdom, seeking to align personal actions with a greater cosmic order. Figures like the Pandavas are often striving for balance, accepting that the complexity of life doesn’t always allow for clear moral resolutions. Instead, the Mahabharata suggests that a life rooted in disciplined action, selfless devotion, and inner knowledge provides the spiritual strength to navigate moral challenges, framing human struggles as paths toward liberation and ultimate unity with the divine.