Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900

Ecological Imperialism was one of the first major texts on the topic of ecological history. As such, its scope is wide ranging; the book aims to explain in broad detail how ecological advantages allowed Europe to become the dominant force as globalization began. Since the time the book was published in 1982, that field has expanded, and nuanced research has been conducted about many of the topics covered in the book. New findings largely uphold the theories proposed in Ecological Imperialism, and the book is seen as an important foundational text within the field of ecological history. 

Despite Ecological Imperialism’s continued relevance, the book is very much of its time, and changes in world politics since its publication are important to note. Near the end of the book, Crosby analyzes the ways in which European dominance of agriculture continues into the present day. The volume and value of food produced by various countries is discussed, and Crosby comes to the conclusion that the Neo-Europes are the most important food producers worldwide. This is still largely true, but in Ecological Imperialism a large swath of Eastern Europe and Central Asia is considered non-European, as the USSR still existed at the time of the book’s publication. Soviet countries produced huge quantities of food, particularly wheat, and exported heavily to other countries. Due to embargoes during the Cold War, the countries to which this food was exported were limited. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, food produced by former Soviet countries, such as Ukraine, has become more widely exported, and these countries are now considered to be fully European. This means the conclusions presented in Ecological Imperialism are even more accurate today: even without the huge government-controlled farming operations of the Soviet Union, the European-style agriculture of its former members dominates the food imports of a large part of the world. 

Advances in the understanding of the Neolithic have also been made since the publication of Ecological Imperialism, which call into question some of the assumptions made about early agricultural development. For much of the history of the study of Archaeology, the Neolithic agricultural revolution was considered to have started primarily in the Fertile Crescent, and farming was considered to be an unquestionable advancement over hunting and gathering. Advances in the scientific analysis of archaeological materials, such as measuring stable isotopes found in human remains to determine the foods they consumed, has revealed that this revolution probably occurred in many parts of the world without contact with each other, and it was likely not a uniform replacement of previous ways of life. Instead, agriculture was probably a response to growing populations; agricultural societies could remain in one location, lessening the chance of conflict with other groups while traveling in search of food. It also helped to guarantee a certain amount of food would be available throughout the year, which in turn made populations expand even more. 

The very specific focus of Ecological Imperialism allows the book to paint a thorough picture of how Europe expanded across the world, but it never fully addresses why this expansion occurred while other powerful population blocks remained relatively condensed. During the Late Middle Ages and Early Renaissance, the periods most thoroughly discussed in Ecological Imperialism, places like the Middle East and China had technology that would have allowed them to expand just as rapidly as the Europeans had they chosen to do so. They had the same advantages of living within the “portmanteau biota,” and the Neo-Europes have areas with similar climates to these areas just as they do to Europe. It seems inevitable that if any of these cultures had decided to invade what is not the Neo-Europes, they would have been just as successful as the Europeans, but this is not the case. Part of the answer to this imbalance that is not addressed in Ecological Imperialism may lie in the cultural values of the European elite, which at the time were focused heavily on expanding Christianity and strict rules of land ownership. Since its inception, the concept of evangelism has been critical to the Christian religion, much more so than other Abrahamic religions or those of East Asia. The importance of this is touched upon in Ecological Imperialism but is underplayed to some extent. European aristocracy and its style of land ownership was also likely an important factor both in the original expansion of the continent and the waves of emigres that came after. In medieval Europe, a few wealthy families owned almost all of the land, and all other people were serfs who worked this land. Although feudalism fell out of favor through the Renaissance, there was still an immense wealth gap between the European elite and the peasantry. The aristocracy, who founded and mounted the first exploratory voyages, wanted more land to call their own, leading them to set out across the ocean. After colonies were established, the open, “free” land in the New World became a huge draw for the lower classes, who saw the chance to build a more independent life.